This article appears in the OAH journal, Teaching American History. This version is the full version with several more documents than actually appear in the print version. Used with permission of the author.

Change Over Time

By Tim Dugan

Introduction

The role of history, and perhaps more specifically, the role of the history teacher is to tell a story which illustrates change over time. One might even say, without change over time, there would be no point in telling stories of history. As we try to teach our students the role of history and historical analysis, it is the changes over time that we stress. History teachers show the maps illustrating European borders before and after each war. We talk about the policies of the Liberal party and how they change the former policies of the Conservative party. The phrase, Variety is the Spice of Life, might be altered to reflect a historians viewpoint, Change over Time is the Spice of History.

One of the most important stories in American History is the change of the status of African Americans over time. Clearly the study of American History can not be accomplished without studying the influence and role of African Americans, from prior to the Revolution, through the ante-bellum South, the Civil War and Reconstruction. But it is the vital changes of the late 1930’s through the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s which creates the modern African American. The critical change of this time period is the massive movement of African Americans out of the south into the rest of America in large numbers and the subsequent change in status. The movement, related to both labor opportunities and the war, will change America and African American culture forever. To enhance the study of these issues and this time period, a collection of documents available on the Internet has been collected and analyzed. All of these documents are related to one part of this issue, the integration of the United States Armed Forces.

Time Frame

This unit is designed to take either two or five days, depending on whether the instructor chooses to use excerpts of the documents, or the full documents. The first several days are spent reading and discussing the documents in the class. As students read each document, a cursory analysis is first done by students, then followed up with questions/comments from the instructor. The culminating written analysis could take the form of a teacher prepared question similar to the Document Based Questions of the Advanced Placement Test in United States History. These documents are all considerably longer than normal DBQ documents on the AP test, but as such they give students the ability to see the context of their actual test documents.

Student Objectives

1.        To develop a better understanding of the role of complete documents in historical analysis.

2.        To consider a collection of documents which are related, but show a variety of sources and viewpoints.

3.        To understand the historical events and their causes that lead to the integration of the American Armed Forces.

4.        To begin to realize the social and cultural ramifications of a change in government policy on the rest of the society.

5.        To enhance the skills of historical analysis of documents necessary for advanced historical assessments (e.g. Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate exams).

Procedure

This lesson is based on a collection of specific documents which are all available online at the Truman Document Library (www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop). The documents, some of which are illustrated in this article have been chosen to represent several years in our discussion (from 1938 to 1953) and have also been selected to represent various categories and positions. The list of the documents, and their internet address includes some commentary of major points to be addressed in analyzing the document. All documents are used with permission of the Truman Library. Most, however, are in the public domain. Teachers who visit this extraordinary website will find the documents are categorized by year, which makes changing documents within the time period easy.

Each document can be reproduced in three ways. First, if the instructor prints the document directly from the web page, the attribution information and description will be included (See illustration #1). Or, the documents can be saved as a separate image file and simply printed out as documents, without the attribution (See illustration #2). The third way would be to take small excerpts from each document and collect them in a smaller packet (which would eliminate significant reading time on the part of the students). The only drawback to the third method is that students often miss the context clues when viewing only small portions of the document. This lesson is designed to give students the larger picture by viewing the entirety of the documents. This lesson could be done as students read standard text material summarizing World War II. As they are studying that period in a survey course, these documents could serve as an in depth study of a related domestic issue.

Document 1 Vann - Letter to the Editor (1938)

R.L. Vann to Ernest H. Wilkins, March 4, 1938

Questions and Comments:

In this personal letter, what clues do you have as to the motive of the author? Why was the letter directed to the President of Oberlin College? What is the significance of the historical review in the letter? Why does the author specifically point out that No American Negro, soldier or civilian, has ever been suspected or convicted of betraying this country? What is the historical significance of pointing out that 99% of Negroes are native born? Why was this significant in 1938? Even though the war is 3 years away for the United States, the references to nazism, and fascism should also be noted. Instructors should be aware that the Pittsburgh Courier led a letter writing campaign at this time (1:61).

Document 2 Hamilton - Negroes Historical Role in National Defense (1940)

"The Negroes' Historical and Contemporary Role In National Defense"

Questions and Comments:

Students should realize quickly that the author speaks in the first person of Negroes (Our ancestors). Students should review African American involvement from their past studies (from the Revolution, through the Battle of New Orleans, and including the segregated units of World War I). Students may have a difficult time understanding why segregation was paramount to fulfilling national defense positions. Instructors should be aware that the Hampton conference included blacks and whites and was held in November, 1940. (1:18)

Document 3 Patterson - Negro Integration Into the Army (1941) 2 pages

Excerpts from "Survey and Recommendations Concerning the Integration of the Negro Soldier into the Army"

Questions and Comments:

Students may want to view the movie, The Tuskegee Airmen for historical reference to the role played in World War II by black aviators. Why was this an unsuitable final solution to the problem of black involvement in the war effort? It should be pointed out that each stage of desegregation led to another (black aviators to black support troops for the planes, to housing of blacks on the same base, to transporting blacks with white troops). As the documents progress, this will eventually lead to requests for integration of schools for the children of military personnel. This is the first document that gives military rationale for the use of more black troops (although not necessarily integrated) there is a need for more personnel to be trained.

Document 4 Leonard Treatment of African American Personnel (1943) 2 pages

J.B. Leonard to Assistant Secretary of War, May 25, 1943

Questions and Comments:

This document can be used to point out that when the military changes rules, there is a clear process to ensure that new rules are followed. The role of the Inspector General Department may need to be explained. IG inspections are routine in the military. An entire unit would be inspected by a team of personnel from the IG office. This letter also points out the variety of issues racial integration raises, everything from recreational facilities, to promotion rates.

Document 5 Lee Need for soldiers at the front (1944)

Memo from John C. H. Lee, December 26, 1944

Questions and Comments:

The date of the document is the first point in the discussion that should be mentioned. Students should be aware of the progress of the war and the number of casualties that are being suffered. In particular, the Battle of the Bulge, as described in Kersten’s article in this issue, saw significant African American involvement. It is particularly significant to note that the General has stated that Negroes will be placed in Negro units unless they do not have sufficient places for them. At that point Negroes will be incorporated into other organizations.

Document 6 Sengstacke Full Integration into the Army (1945)2 pages

John Sengstacke to Truman Gibson, Jr., with attached letter

Questions and Comments:

Again, from the black perspective, changes have been made from specific attempts to meet bad conditions and not from advance planning. Mr. Sengstacke anticipates the end of the war and is interested in proceeding immediately with the preparation of plans looking to the fair and complete utilization and integration of Negroes in the peacetime Army and Navy. The manner in which integration was not resolved at the end of World War I made African Americans particularly wary of the end of World War II.

Document 7 Mole States Rights vs. Integrated Rail Cars (1946)

Charles Mole to Adjutant General, with reply by Marcus Ray

Questions and Comments:

A serious issue throughout American History, from the National Bank controversy, through the Civil War, is the constant struggle for sovereignty between the states and the national government. The author of this letter is upset that state laws requiring segregation on rail cars is being ignored by the Army. Students should be able to see the long range cultural/social consequences of the armed forces integration on the total nation. Students should also be able to extrapolate the original states rights argument into the current situation.

Document 8 War Department Policies and Practices (1947) 2 pages

Robert Patterson to the President's Committee on Civil Rights

Questions and Comments:

Students will need a review of the property rights as a legal term. A quick synopsis of the major due process amendments will also help. Most students are not aware that military personnel fall under a separate system of Justice (now the Uniform Code of Military Justice). Many are surprised to find that some civil rights are isolated and/or not present when in uniform. What is a petit jury? Which amendments guarantee Due Process? Why are there separate amendments for the same thing? How are soldiers expressing their disagreement with segregation in 1947? How does this pre-sage the impact of people like Rosa Parks refusing to move to the back of the bus many years later?

Document 9 Truman Speech on Civil Rights in Armed Services (1948)

Memo of conversation with Marx Leva

Questions and Comments:

Who is Marx Leva? Why is he giving suggestions to President Truman on his speech? Notice the integration applies to the Armed Forces only.

Document 10 Truman Equality in Armed Services and all branches of the Federal Government (1949)

Transcript of meeting of Fahy Committee with President Truman

Questions and Comments:

Why, less than one year later, is Truman now calling for integration not only in the Military services, but in all the branches of the Federal Government? What changes in American society have taken place? Does the fact that Truman is now an elected President play any role?

Document 11 DOD Army Revises Policy Governing Utilization of Negro Manpower (1950) "Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Army"

Questions and Comments:

The Army has finally adopted official policies of integration, as outlined in this document, to obtain maximum efficiency in the Army. Students can begin to see the bureaucracy of the Army and how decisions, once made, can take time to be enacted. The change over time of policies, to reflect social/cultural realities is important.

Document 12 Street African American veteran; letter to Truman (1951) 2 pages

Stewart Street to Harry S. Truman

Questions and Comments:

How is the date of this letter significant? What role does the upcoming need for troops to fight in Korea have in this event? How accurate, in your opinion, is the writer when he says that the Korean War will not be about communism, but a racial war to move whites out of Asia? How ironic is the notion of a black army veteran fighting to keep whites in Asia? What is the significance of the notion that democracy has failed in the shadow of its essence? What does that mean?

Document 13 Eisenhower Report of Racial Integration; political motive indicated (1952)

Philleo Nash to Donald Dawson

Questions and Comments:

The attribution of this article implies that Eisenhower integrated the Army in Korea for political purposes. What evidence would you need to further convince you this was possibly true? What is Pathfinder? How would the source of this article give or take credibility to it?

Document 14 Rosenberg Questions segregated schools on military bases (1952)

Anna Rosenberg to Earl McGrath

Questions and Comments:

Document 15 is used to finalize the discussion of this change over time. As a pre-cursor to the notion that all American schools will need to be desegregated, we see the call for desegregation of schools on military bases. How does this letter summarize the entire series of events that culminate in full integration in America? Why is it significant that the American Senate has entered into the discussion on integration? Why might this be so?

Students, while reading the documents, should have a basic timeline handy of the time period (1937 1953). Students should read each document and take notes, making particular reference to the date of each document, the attribution (author, role of the author, nature of the document). After doing this, students should try to find one or two significant events in American History, particularly related to the war effort, that might have occurred in the same time period, or just prior to, each document. After completing this timeline and the notes on the documents, students are ready to discuss the articles in class.

Discussion in the class should center on the following general questions, making specific reference using the comments included with the document references above:

1.        What significant changes are evident in the collection of documents which can be matched up with specific dates? (Particular attention should be paid to the entry of the United States into the war, the pressures on the industrial sector to match the needs of the war effort, and the loss of life as the war progressed as well as the beginning of the Korean War).

2.        What differences can you attribute to different groups (private citizens, government boards, actual military officers, politicians). Each document should have attribution which indicates the actual author. Some actually mention the nature of the author and his particular bias, others may need to be researched. Students should make an attempt to group the documents in a variety of ways.

3.        On each document, identify the particular bias/interest level of the person both sending and receiving the document (e.g. Truman, military officer, white/black author). Is the response/opinion of the person what you think it should be? Select one document that you consider the most important. Tell Why.

4.        How does the Change over Time exhibit itself (point out the move from integrating the army, then integrating the army outside of bases, then integrating base schools, eventually leading to Brown vs. Topeka in 1954).

5.        Does the nature of the document (private letter, public announcement) make a noticeable difference in the tone of the writing? What clues in each document might tell you this?

Assessment

The survey American History student would then use the documents, and class materials (including their textbook) to develop a theme surrounding this topic. A sample introductory paragraph is included here from a student of mine, Joe Gratton (a sophomore at Princeton High School, Cincinnati, Ohio):

It is evident that many African-American servicemen faced tremendous odds to gain equality within the military, but you can see from the documents that many high-ranking officers and politicians supported the idea of full integration of all military units. The few men that believed in integration faced a larger group of people that were against it, which is why the African-American soldiers and sailors were treated so poorly during the war. Even though they had participated with honor and distinction in every conflict that the United States was involved. When men of German and Italian descent enlisted in the military during World War II, African-American men were excluded. When African-American men were eventually allowed to enlist in the military, they were given jobs as laborers and cooks. Even as cooks and laborers, black soldiers and sailors still saw action by volunteering for temporary front line duty. Many also saved lives by volunteering for the medical corps. Not until the Tuskegee Airmen, were African-Americans allowed to serve in combat units. The Tuskegee Airmen did see their share of doubts from the Department of Defense, but their unit put those doubts to rest when they served throughout the war with distinction. The Tuskegee Airmen were assigned to the segregated 332nd Fighter Group of the 15th Air Force. Their role was flying escort missions for B-17 Flying Fortresses and B-24 Liberators over Nazi Germany. The 332nd Fighter Group never lost a single bomber to enemy action, and the white bomber pilots respected them for it. Between May of 1943 and June of 1945, 450 Tuskegee Airmen were awarded more than 850 medals. Even with respect from their white commanding officers, African-American servicemen would still see prejudice. Only with the integration of the military, would African-Americans receive a fraction of equality.

Bibliography

1. Buchanan, A. Russell, Black Americans in World War II, 1977 Clio Books, Santa Barbara, California.

2. Project Whistlestop, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education. (www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop)